Cold War in Europe Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Cold War in Europe - Assignment Example The attitude of the writer towards communism changes when the Soviets take the occupation of Czech in the 1946 elections. After the Yalta agreement that ended the brutal German rule, there was a reprieve as the pre-war president, Edward Benes takes power. The communists did well in these elections, but they did not form the majority government. They later took the power and instigated their rule with initiation of a one party state. The early phases of Prague Spring are portrayed as a call for reforms in the Dubcek governance. The voices that called for the end of centralisation of the economy and the call for the formation of the opposition Socialist party engineered the whole process. The call for reform of the party doctrine, and the free economy reforms dominated this period. Furthermore, Dubcek wanted to form interrelationship with the West. He claimed that Czech would continue to be subsidiary to the Soviet Union and the other partners. Fearing that their own citizens would demand for similar reforms, Breshnev took action to gain control. It became clear that the Warsaw Pact powers had the right to intervene in the matter. On the Warsaw Pact invasion, Dubcek called for the no-resistance, despite the sporadic fighting outbreaks. The students endeavoured to stop the Soviet tanks, and tried to involve the NATO. With over 70,000 Czech refugees, non-violent resistance took place. The president was arrested and taken to Moscow, but mass resistance led to his return to Czech. The later protests led to the removal of Dubcek as the president, and he was replaced by Gustav Husak who launched the normalisation programme (Conference Six Focus – topic 1). The impression obtained from the Czech political fortunes is that, they advocated for reforms in their system of governance. They were committed towards becoming and independent state with a democratic setting. The focus to development, other than war, was a gallant step towards their growth. Stalin

Globalization Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Globalization - Assignment Example In this paper, I will provide the ten most expensive items I own, their place of manufacture and also write a brief review of my findings and the impact globalization has had on my life and purchasing habits. Of the 10 items on the list, only 1 (Seiko watch) is produced in its manufacturer’s country of origin. 4 items are produced in China, while 2 are manufactured in Germany. This shows that a majority of multinational corporations favor producing goods in other countries where it is cheaper to do so. By doing this, they avoid paying high or extra taxes levied upon them and hence make the final products cheaper. They are also able to incur minimal expenses in terms of production labor, since human resources are very expensive in their countries of origin. Globalization has had a massive impact on consumers all over the world. Actually, it does not matter how much one earns; it is now possible to purchase items that were previously deemed too expensive by some consumers. Personally, globalization has affected me in a number of ways, both positively and negatively. The positive effects include the fact that I am now able to afford certain products that I could not fathom buying because they were costly for me. I can say that my purchasing power has increased significantly over the last two years, hence allowing me to enjoy the benefits of owning some products. Despite this, my financial capability has not improved much, so I am convinced that products have become cheaper. There has also been an increase in the availability of foreign products. I now have a wider variety of brands to choose from when buying items, and this is because the goods are produced cheaply and therefore can be made available to just about everybody. Negative impacts include an increase in the number of counterfeits being produced. I have been a victim of counterfeiting before, so I know the pain and disappointment of buying something only to discover (later)

Student Values Essay Example for Free

Student Values Essay Encarta defines Values as the accepted principles or standards of an individual or a group. The University of Phoenix has clearly defined these standards for each student in the student handbook. As a student at the University of Phoenix, there are many values that I find extremely important. I have narrowed it down to three for discussion in this paper: Promoting the University of Phoenixs Mission Statement; Consistent Attendance; and Participation in Learning Teams. According to the University Of Phoenix, its mission is to educate working adults to develop the knowledge and skills that will enable them to achieve their professional goals, improve the productivity of their organizations, and provide leadership and service to their communities (University Of Phoenix, 2005, p. 2). To fulfill this mission, the University of Phoenix states it will: Facilitate cognitive and affective student learning, develop competence in the communication, critical thinking, collaboration, and information utilization; provide instruction that bridges the gap between theory and practice; to use technology to create effective modes and means of instruction; improve the teaching/learning system, curriculum, instruction, learning resources, counseling and student services by assessing student learning; foster a spirit of innovation that focuses on providing academic quality, service, excellence, and convenience to the working adult; and to generate the financial resources necessary to support the Universitys mission (University Of Phoenix, 2005, p. 2). To paraphrase from the handbook, our responsibilities as students states that we act ethically with one another (students, faculty, University staff); welcome the contributions of not only students, but faculty and staff members in creating an atmosphere of respect and recognition; foster a productive learning atmosphere; constructively accepting and providing feedback; identify individual and professional values of ourselves and others; show independence and direction in the conclusion of group/individual learning objectives; Be accountable for our actions (communication, interactions); recognize that conflicts/resolutions between individuals/groups are necessary to the team learning process; preserve confidentiality and privacy of personal or professional information being communicated; accountability for group achievements from working collaboratively in the learning process; adhere to the University principles on plagiarism/academic cheating; observe all laws and adhere to the University policies. In order to support the Universitys mission, we, as students, must follow certain values during our studies at the University of Phoenix. Without these values, we would not be able to uphold the Universitys mission. Personally, I uphold the mission statement by participating to the fullest degree possible, putting forth my best efforts as a student, and maintaining a high degree of ethical standards. I also find regular class attendance an important value, as a University of Phoenix Student. Whether it is traditional, online or direct study, class attendance is mandatory and essential for effective learning. Since we are online students, class participation is extremely important. Dr. Wilson states that Participation is very important online. You will be expected to participate four days a week in several different discussions and to contribute at least two substantive discussion messages on each of those four days (Wilson, 2006, p7). Because our class is based on the Active Learning Model, our classroom is a dynamic learning arena. As stated in the University Catalog, the model is based first on the assumption that the learners active involvement in the learning process is essential to good practice. Thus, University of Phoenix classrooms are intended to be dynamic learning spaces (University Of Phoenix, 2005, p. 13). For this reason, it is imperative that classes not be missed or we would not be able to participate in the active learning environment. Another value that is conducive to learning is the development of the Learning Team. A Learning Team is a small group of students, ranging from three to six people (from different parts of the country or world) that is crucial to our learning environment. Learning Teams are an essential design element in the Universitys teaching and learning model through which students develop the ability to collaborate ? an ability expected of employees in information-age organizations and one of the Universitys primary learning goals (University Of Phoenix, 2005, p. 14). The Learning Team forces us to work effectively and efficiently. The team must work together in order to complete the assigned tasks. Working in groups also teaches us how to work in diverse groups in the real-world. In conclusion, the values I have listed only scratch the surface of the value system. Values are a part of us and society as a whole. They may relate to how each of us views the world around us or may be the basis for the laws that govern us. Without values, we could be living in a world that would not be able to distinguish between what is right and what is wrong. References University of Phoenix (2005). University of Phoenix Catalog 2005-2006. : . Wilson, T. (2006). COM 526 Syllabus. : .

Enzyme Kinetics of Acetylcholinesterase

Enzyme Kinetics of Acetylcholinesterase David Romero Perez Enzyme kinetics of Acetylcholinesterase and its behaviour in the presence of Edrophonium. Abstract The aim of the present study was to test the effects of edrophonium on the enzyme kinetics of acetylcholinesterase. The use of s-acetylthiocholine as a substrate with its breakdown by acetylcholinesterase and the later reaction into a coloured product, allowed the utilization of colorimetric technique in conjunction with spectrophotometry. A Michaelis-Menton and a Lineweaver-Burk plot showed edrophonium to be an acetylcholinesterase inhibitor that does not fit with the classical descriptions of competitive, non-competitive or uncompetitive inhibitors. The results though were coherent with previous research that classed edrophonium as a mixed inhibitor at concentrations similar to the ones used in the present study, 10 uM. On the contrary, the same study suggested that edrophonium behaves as a competitive inhibitor at concentrations of 0.1 uM but this concentration was not tested on the present study and, therefore, further research is required. Introduction Chemical reactions are the fundamental basis of all matter and, therefore, of life. The study of the chemistry relevant to life is called biochemistry and inside this discipline the study of enzymes has been of particular importance. Enzymes simply make rare chemical events common enough to allow the accumulation of, otherwise, improvable molecules or products required for life (Laidler, 1997). Thanks to millions of years of evolution the level of sophistication in biological systems has reached high levels, allowing fine-tuned regulation of enzymes and their products (Berg, Tymoczko and Stryer, 2012). Nonetheless, the study of the enzyme kinetics and how their regulation works had to overcome, with great efforts, the technological difficulties of such small and fast reactions (Laidler, 1997). The first studies done on enzyme kinetics were on fermentation. From ancient cultures to the present humans have use fermentation to produce alcohol and bread. But it was not until the 19th century that fermentation started to be studied. Fischer’s lock and key hypothesis was one of the first successful although not completely accurate attempts to explain the process (Laidler, 1997). On 1902 Brown studied invertase, using yeast and sucrose, discovering the Enzyme-Substrate complex (ES) (Kenneth, 2013). This provided the fundamental blocks for the development of the new-born biochemistry discipline. Another hallmark on biochemistry was the work of Leonor Michaelis and Maud Leonora Menten, 1913, Michaelis-Menten equation (E + S →↠ ES →↠ ES ´ → E + products). Their experiment failed but gave us important lessons on the importance of pH on enzyme reactions (Laidler, 1997). The pH is important because most, if not all, enzymes are active only at specific ranges of pH, and usually reach their optimum activity around 7.0 pH. This value is common in biological systems although specialized enzymes may require higher or lower values (Berg, Tymoczko and Stryer, 2012). Also, the previously mentioned researchers produced an easy way of visualizing the data in the form of a graph called the Michaelis-Menten plot. This graph allows quick recognition of important parameters like the maximum activity reached by the enzyme (Vmax) and the amount of substrate required to produce half Vmax (Km) (Berg, Tymoczko and Stryer, 2012; Laidler, 1997). The Michaelis-Menten plot will be used in this study to show both parameters in relation to the enzyme achetylcholinesterase. Acetylcholinesterase is an enzyme of vital importance for the nervous system. As an enzyme is a globular protein mostly released to the inter-synaptic space between neurons’ axons and dendrites. Its purpose there is to break down the neurotransmitter acetylcholine to prevent it from continuously activating acetylcholine receptors on the post-synaptic neuron (Berg, Tymoczko and Stryer, 2012). As with every enzyme other substances can interact with it or with the conformation of the E+S complex. These components are called inhibitors and are usually described as competitive, non-competitive or uncompetitive, although mixed inhibitors have been also described (Berg, Tymoczko and Stryer, 2012; Howard, 2007). For any chemical to be classed as an inhibitor it must have an negative effect on the Vmax and/or Km. The effect on those would decide what type of inhibitor the chemical is. If competitive the inhibitor binds to the catalytic site and Vmax remains the same while Km is increased. On the other side, if non-competitive, it would bind on a different location than the catalytic site, preventing the binding of the substrate. In this case Vmax would be the same but Km would be decreased. In turn, an uncompetitive inhibitor binds to the Enzyme-Substrate complex (ES) and both Vmax and Km, are decreased (Berg, Tymoczko and Stryer, 2012; Howard, 2007). In the present study the kinetics of achetylcholinesterase are tested in the presence or absence of edrophonium in order to investigate if it is indeed an inhibitor and to which class it belongs. These values were found using a combination of spectrophotometry and colourometry techniques. Spectrophotometry is a technique in which light crosses a cuvette containing the solutes. The content of the solution absorbs a certain amount of light depending on the concentration of the coloured chemical, therefore, less light will reach the detector at the other side of the cuvette. This is called the transmittance, and allows us to calculate the absorbance by subtracting the transmittance to 1 (1-T=A). The absorbance increases or decreases with the capacity of the solution to absorb light, giving an accurate reading of changes in solution composition or concentrations as is the case with enzymes in the presence of their specific substrate (Blauch, 2014; Reed, et al., 1998). This is calculated using the Beer-Lambert law which states that absorbance can be obtained by the equation A=Ecl (E=molar absorbitivity, c=concentration, l=longitude of the path of light which is commonly 1cm) (Anon., n.d.) Being the molar absorptivity (E) of 5-thio-2-nitrobenzoic acid 1.3610^4. The Beer-Lam bert equation can be rearranged (Anon., n.d.) to study the concentrations of unknown samples given that A and E are known and it provides the basis to accurate study of enzyme kinetics together with colourometric technique. Colourometry is based in the natural correlation between the amount of coloured chemical in a solution and the intensity of that colour. Therefore, by comparing solutions of known concentration of the same chemical it is possible to determine the concentration of the unknown concentration sample (Lancashire, 2011). To do so, a spectrophotometer is used by setting it up at the specific wavelength that corresponds to the colour of the reaction (Reed, et al., 1998). In some cases the product of the enzymatic reaction may not produce any colour and a modified substrate can be used. As it was explained before, acetylcholinesterase hydrolyses (breaks down) acetylcholine into an acetyl group and choline. The problem when trying to use the colourometric technique to measure the substrate production is that choline is colourless, hence the reason s-acetylthiocholine is used instead. The break down product thiocholine reacts with 5,5’dithiobis acid (DTNB) to produce 5-thio-2-nitrobenzoic acid (E=1.3610^4). This final product is yellow coloured and can be measured using the spectrophotometer at 412nm wavelength, allowing the precise study of acetylcholinesterase kinetics. Materials The agents used in this experiment were phosphate buffer (0.1 M), acetylthiocholine (15mM), DTNB reagent (6mM), acetylcholinesterase enzyme (0.3 u/ml) and water. All of them provided by UCLan School of Biomedical Sciences. In order to create the mixtures Gilson pipettes ( p20, p200 and p1000) with their respective tips were used. In addition, 3ml tubes were used for the initial adding of agents and 1ml standard plastic cuvettes for the spectrometer, which was also used to measure the absorbance. Methods The present study was divided in three parts. The aim of the first part was to find out the effect of enzyme concentration on rate reaction. The second part aimed to find the effect of different substrate concentration on rate reaction. Finally the third part studied the effect of edrophonium on enzyme rate reaction at different substrate concentrations. As a general note, every single dilution was kept at 3.0ml volume, using phosphate buffer as solvent. Also, every single dilution had 0.1ml AChE but in controls it was replaced with 0.1ml phosphate buffer to keep the 3.0ml volume. All mixtures were produce at room temperature. Plastic cuvettes were used to measure up absorbance in a spectrometer at 412 nm wavelength for two minutes, being the result the average per minute of those two minutes. For the first part of the study on effect of enzyme concentration on rate reaction the mixtures were produced as showed in table 1. AGENT VOLUME 1ST MIXTURE VOLUME 2ND MIXTURE VOLUME 3RD MIXTURE STOCK CONC. REACTION CONC. PHOSPHATE BUFFER 1.25 ml 1.2 ml 1.1 ml 0.1 M 50 mM ACETYLTHIOCHOLINE 0.1 ml 0.1 ml 0.1 ml 15mM 0.5 mM DTNB REAGENT 0.1 ml 0.1 ml 0.1 ml 6 mM 0.2 mM AChE 0.05 ml 0.1 ml 0.2 ml 0.3 u/ml 1st-0.005 u/ml 2nd-0.01 u/ml 3rd-0.02 u/ml WATER 1.5 ml 1.5 ml 1.5 ml n/a n/a Table 1 Reaction Mixtures. Before measuring every mixture the spectrometer was blanked with the correspondent control without the enzyme. The second part of the study looked at the effect on rate reaction of different substrate concentrations. The mixtures were produced with the volumes detailed in table 2. ACETYLTHIOCHOLINE (ml) PHOSPHATE BUFFER (ml) DTNB REAGENT (ml) AChE (ml) WATER Reaction conc of Acetylthiocholine (uM) 0.20 1.1 0.1 0.1 1.5 1000 0.10 1.2 0.1 0.1 1.5 500 0.05 1.25 0.1 0.1 1.5 250 0.02 1.28 0.1 0.1 1.5 100 0.01 1.29 0.1 0.1 1.5 50 0.005 1.295 0.1 0.1 1.5 25 Table 2 Composition of mixtures of acetylcholinesterase enzyme reaction without edrophonium. The effect of edrophonium on rate reaction was studied on the third part of the experiment. The mixtures were produced following table 3. Acetylthiocholine (ml) Phosphate Buffer (ml) DTNB Reagent (ml) Edrophonium (ul) AChE (ml) Water (ml) Reaction conc of acetythiocholine (uM) 0.20 1.1 0.1 100 0.1 1.5 1000 0.10 1.20 0.1 100 0.1 1.5 500 0.05 1.25 0.1 100 0.1 1.5 250 0.02 1.28 0.1 100 0.1 1.5 100 0.01 1.29 0.1 100 0.1 1.5 50 0.005 1.295 0.1 100 0.1 1.5 25 Table 3 Composition of mixtures of acetylcholinesterase enzyme reaction with edrophonium. Once the absorbance was recorded, the Beer-Lambert law equation was transformed to calculate the Velocity of 5-thio-2-nitrobenzoic acid (E=1.3610^4) production in Moles/litre/min achieved by every mixture: -A=ECL → C=A/E (L equals 1 per 1 cm of light path length inside the spectrophotometer cuvettes). The full calculations can be consulted in appendix 1. Results For the first part of the study the effect of enzyme concentration on rate reaction was measured and the velocity on nM/L/min was calculated and noted in table 4. Acetylcholinesterase concentration in u/ml Velocity of reaction in ÃŽ ¼M/L/min 0.005 2.05 0.01 3.97 0.02 7.8 Table 4 Calculated Velocity of reaction by acetylcholinesterase concentration. The velocity was plotted against enzyme concentration in graph 1, which shows a linear relationship between both parameters. Graph 1 Enzyme reaction of acetylcholine in response to enzyme concentration. Next the velocities of enzyme reaction at acetylthiocholine concentrations ranging from 25-1000 ÃŽ ¼M in the presence or absence of edrophonium were calculated and noted in table 5. Reaction concentration of Acetylthiocholine (ÃŽ ¼M) Velocity of reaction without edrophonium (ÃŽ ¼M/L/min) Velocity of reaction with edrophonium (ÃŽ ¼M/L/min) 25 2.5 0.15 50 2.87 0.95 100 3.6 1.25 250 3.75 2.57 500 4.34 2.65 1000 6.62 3 Table 5 calculated Velocities of acetylcholinesterase enzymatic reaction with and without edrophonium. Using the data from table 5 a Michaelis-Menton graph was plotted in graph 2 in order to reveal changes in Vmax and Km in the presence or absence of edrophonium. Graph 2 Michaelis-Menton plot of acetylcholine in the presence or absence of edrophonium. Clear differences on Vmax and Km were found between mixtures with or without edrophonium. In its presence Vmax dropped from 4.34 uM/L/ml to 3.01 uM/L/ml. On the contrary, the amount of substrate (s-acetylthiocholine) required to achieve 50% of Vmax was increased from 30 uM/ml to 100 uM/ml. There was a problem with the higher concentration mixture of the absence condition as it produced a higher than expected absorbance. This was examined in the discussion section. A Lineweaver-Burk plot (graph 3) showed the same results with decreased Vmax and increased Km. Graph 3 Lineweaver-Burk plot acetylcholinesterase in the presence and absence of edrophonium. In agreement with what was observed in graph 2, the graph showed that edrophonium is an acetylcholinesterase inhibitor. The kind of inhibitor it belongs to was examined in the discussion section. Discussion When comparing the Michaelis-Menton and the Lineweaver-Burk plots with the standard results of competitive, non-competitive and uncompetitive inhibitors (Berg, Tymoczko and Stryer, 2012), it became clear edrophonium did not belong to any of those. This can be explained by understanding the mode of action of a given inhibitor with the enzyme-substrate complex. Different inhibitors interact with different parts of a given enzyme or at different moments. A competitive inhibitor â€Å"competes† with the substrate for the catalytic site of the enzyme. As a consequence, the Vmax is reduced but if the concentration of the substrate is increased, more substrate would reach the catalytic site, nullifying the effect of the inhibitor although increasing the Km. An uncompetitive inhibitor does not bind to the catalytic site but somewhere else on the enzyme. It binds only once the E+S complex has been formed, decreasing the reaction rate regardless the substrate concentration. As a result the enzyme can not reach its normal Vmax and the Km is decreased. On the other hand, a noncompetitive inhibitor does not need the E+S complex to bind to the enzyme and does not decrease E+S formation. However, the E+S+I complex would not create a product, inactivating the enzyme. Basically, the noncompetitive inhibitor has taken a percentage of the active enzy me from the population, decreasing the Vmax but maintaining the same Km for the rest of the active enzyme population (Berg, Tymoczko and Stryer, 2012). The results of the present study suggest that edrophonium decreases the Vmax whilst increasing the Km and this effect can not be overcome by increasing substrate concentration. As a result, it can be classed as a mixed inhibitor, which inhibits the binding of the enzyme to the substrate and, at the same time, inactivates a proportion of the enzyme population (Berg, Tymoczko and Stryer, 2012). This has been supported by previous research (Robaire Kato, 1975) that found edrophonium to be a competitive inhibitor at concentrations of 0.1 uM but a mixed inhibitor at concentrations like the used in the present study, 10 uM. There were some limitations with the materials used. Plastic cuvettes were used instead of glass ones which are more suitable for organic solvents (Reed, et al., 1998). Also, the relative pipetting inexperience of the researches might have affected the accuracy of the resulting mixtures, hence the odd results for the mixture of higher substrate concentration on the absence condition. In future research it is recommended to improve pipetting accuracy maybe by using an automated pipetting system. Also, the timing in enzymatic reactions is critical, as these reactions occur often in seconds or even milliseconds (Laidler, 1997). Therefore, a multiplate spectrophotometer reader could be used to measure the absorbance of the mixtures. This would avoid any potential differences and delays from the moment the mixture is done to its reading. Also, lower concentrations of edrophonium (0.1 uM) should be tested to corroborate Robaire and kato’s (1975) research. In conclusion, in agreement with previous research (Bonaire Kato, 1975), the data points at edrophonium as an acetylcholinesterase mixed inhibitor at least at high concentrations (10 uM). Nonetheless, it needs to be confirmed in future research that edrophonium is also a competitive inhibitor at low concentration. At the same time, the technique could be optimized by the use of automated means in order to improve accuracy given the odd results produced by poor pipetting accuracy. References Anon (n.d.) Beers Law. Available: http://teaching.shu.ac.uk/hwb/chemistry/tutorials/molspec/beers1.htm. Last accessed 15th Jan 2014. Berg, J. M., Tymoczko, J. L. and Stryer, L. (2012) Biochemistry, 7th ed. New York: Freeman. Blauch D. N. (2014) Spectrophotomery. Available: http://www.chm.davidson.edu/vce/spectrophotometry/Spectrophotometry.html. Last accessed 15th Jan 2014. Howard, A. J. (2007) Enzyme inhibition and regulation, CSRRi,iit, [online]. Available at: http://csrri.iit.edu/~howard/biochem/lectures/enzymeinhibition.html. Last accessed 15th Jan 2014. Kenneth, A. J. (2013) A century of enzyme kinetic analysis, 1913 to 2013. FEBSLetters. 587, 2753-2766. Laidler, K. J. (1997) A brief history of enzyme kinetics. In: A. Cornish-Bowden ed. New Beer in an Old Bottle: Eduard Buchner and the Growth of Biochemical Knowledge. Valencia: Universitat de Valencia, pp. 127-133. Lancashire, R. J. (2011) EXPERIMENT 36 COLOURIMETRIC DETERMINATION OF PHOSPHATE. Available: http://wwwchem.uwimona.edu.jm/lab_manuals/c10expt36.html. Last accessed 15th Jan 2014. Reed, R. Holmes, D. Weyers, J. Jones, A. (1998) Practical Skills in Biomolecular Sciences. 4th ed. Essex: Pearson. 310-313. Robaire, B., Kato, G. (1975) Effects of Edrophonium, Eserine, Decamethonium, d-Tubocurarine, and Gallamine on the Kinetics of Membrane-Bound and Solubilized Eel Acetylcholinesterase. MOLECULAR PHARMACOLOGY. 11 (6), 722-734. Appendix 1 Velocity calculations Normal absorbances (nM) Divided by E Velociy (ÃŽ ¼M/L/min) 1/Velocity 0.034 2.5 0.4 0.039 2.87 0.35 0.049 1.3610^4 3.6 0.277 0.051 3.75 0.266 0.059 4.34 0.23 0.090 6.62 0.15 absorbances in the presence of edrophonium (nM) Divided by E Velociy (ÃŽ ¼M/L/min) 1/Velocity 0.002 0.15 6.6 0.013 0.95 1.05 0.017 1.3610^4 1.25 0.8 0.035 2.57 0.39 0.036 2.65 0.37 0.041 3 0.33

The Marxist and Functionalist Perspectives on the Family Essay

The Marxist and Functionalist Perspectives on the Family For the purpose of this essay question I will discuss the Marxist and the Functionalist perspectives on the Family. I will compare and contrast them and give a critical analysis of each and place them in historical context as well as modern day. In Britain today there are many different types of families. A social unit living together defines what a family is. The family resembles the core feature of society. Both Marxist and Functionalist perspectives believe the family is what holds society together and helps socialise the future generations. There are three types of family existing in today’s society. The nuclear family resembles a family unit made up of no more than two generations, stereotyped as a mother, father and 2.4 children. The extended family refers to a family unit made of many three generations or more who live with each other or near by. This type is typical of pre-industrial or ‘primitive’ societies. The third type of family is the reconstituted. This type has become more apparent in modern day society. It refers to adults who have married before and have brought their children from the first marriage to the second, creating a new family unit. It is important to note that not every household includes a family – for example student flats. The functionalist perspective believe society is like a machine in that all its institutions sustain continuity and consensus and keep society running smoothly. Functionalists believe the family contributes to society’s basic needs and helps maintain social order. Functionalists have been criticised for placing too much ... ...e into existence with the invention of private property. Both Murdock and Parsons paint a very ‘rosy’ picture of family life. They fail to take in account the darker side of society and family issues such as domestic abuse etc. Parsons views on men and women in relationships are often out dated. A lot of women these days are the breadwinners in the family and therefore the husband and wife roles have been reversed. Functionalist do not recognise that women suffer from the sexual division of labour while Marxists highlight this is their theory. Marxists also come under scrutiny for exaggerating the importance of the family life as being a refuge from the capitalist society. Marxists also underestimate darker issues such as violence within the home etc. Zaretsky overemphasises the fact that family and work are separated.

The Maltese Falcon :: essays research papers fc

Dashiell Hammett’s San Francisco: A Unique Setting in the Changing World of Early 20th Century Detective Fiction The Pacific coast port city of San Francisco, California provides a distinctively mysterious backdrop in Dashiell Hammett’s The Maltese Falcon. Unlike many other detective stories that are anchored in well-known metropolises such as Los Angeles or New York City, Hammett opted to place the events of his text in the lesser-known, yet similarly exotic cultural confines of San Francisco. Hammett used his own intricate knowledge of the San Francisco Bay Area - coupled with details collected during a stint as a detective for the now defunct Pinkerton Agency - to craft a distinctive brand of detective fiction that thrived on such an original setting (Paul 93). By examining the setting of 1920’s San Francisco in The Maltese Falcon, it becomes apparent that one of Hammett’s literary strengths was his exceptional ability to intertwine non-fictional places with a fictional plot and characters in order to produce a logical and exceedingly believable detective mystery.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Dashiell Hammett called the San Francisco area home from 1920 until 1936. For a portion of those fourteen years, he shared an apartment on Eddy Street with his first wife Josephine Dolan. This apartment was located very near the San Francisco Public Library on Larkin Street where in 1921 Hammett first conceived the idea of his writing detective fiction. San Francisco historian and author Don Freeman explains: In the library he would read the magazines and the books and one day after reading several detective yarns he said, ‘I can do that.’ The truth is, he could. And he did. He wrote for Black Mask, a pulp detective magazine, and then as his skills increased he began to write novels. It was in this library that Dashiell Hammett saw his future. (79) Hammett contributed stories to Black Mask for ten years until The Maltese Falcon gained public and literary acclaim. Many of the stories that Hammett penned for Black Mask were set in San Francisco, as the city provided him with a unique atmosphere in which to observe and record different cultures, norms, and fads. In the 1920’s, San Francisco was thought of as an exotic melting pot of culture that was rivaled only by its eastern cultural counterpart of New York City. Therefore, it is no surprise that Hammett used San Francisco as the setting of The Maltese Falcon to further illustrate the exotic and striking nature of the plot and characters within the text (Dumenil 211).

Laocoon and His Sons

This essay is an attempt to address the marble sculpture commonly known as Laocoon and His Sons, and why exactly I believe it to be a work of high art, of great value and significance to the species. Laocoon and His Sons is a marble sculpture representing a scene that is a part of the tale of the siege and invasion of Troy. Laocoon was the protagonist in a play by Sophocles that is now lost. He was also written about by Virgil.The statue itself is one of the most famous sculptures of Greek and Roman antiquity, its subject is Laocoon, a Trojan high priest, who, along with his two sons, is – according to legend – attacked and killed by two snakes, or sea serpents. The tale is known as myth, but its content may have symbolic roots in actual historical happenstance. No one is quite sure as of yet how much of that myth may or not be so. The scene depicts Laocoon, the chosen priest of Neptune for the city of Troy, and his sons, in their death throws, overcome by an enormous s erpent. Cursed by the gods for either impiety – 3 ccording to Sophocles – or for warning the Trojans of the danger of the Trojan horse – according to Virgil, the serpents were dispatched to do away with Laocoon ‘I tell you there are Greeks hiding in here, shut up in all this wood, or else it is a siege engine designed for use against our walls, to spy on our homes and come down on the city from above, or else there is some other trick we cannot see. Do not trust the horse, Trojans. Whatever it is, I am afraid of Greeks, even when they bear gifts. ’ (Virgil, 2003, p. 26) The scene depicted is the wrath of the gods in action.The turmoil of the scene, the hopeless agony on the faces of the figures, is so charged with emotion that the forms seem truly alive. This is the first time this caliber of realism is reached in Greek art, in all known human sculpture up to this point in history; and many would submit that it has never been surpassed. The action a ddressed in this sculptural scene animates it to the point that one forgets that this is apparently an idealized figure born from myth. The despair and pain in Laocoon’s eyes seem to be a pleading to the very gods that doomed him – in his final moments, asking ‘Why have you forsaken me? Achieving this sort of beyond-human realism through the sculpting of marble is particularly remarkable, as marble is known as a notoriously difficult medium to deal with, especially considering the simple tools the artists would have at hand to form this creation. But, the medium, once utilized correctly by skilled hands, is like no other, and has a powerful tone to it. Marble is slightly radioactive, and with statues like Laocoon and His Sons, that radiation can truly be felt. This piece is indeed a testament to Greek craftsmanship, and to the classical Greek culture that is ensouled in this piece.In Pliny the Elder’s Natural History, Pliny describes the sculpture and rete lls of his experience of seeing it in Rome some time during the first century CE. However, Pliny doesn’t give an exact date for the creation of the statue – which is unknown. He mentions it was in the palace of the Emperor Titus, and 4 describes it as Laocoon and his children being strangled. From his point of view it was a far superior piece of art to anything else made; paint, bronze or stone. It may have been originally bronze and the marble version a copy, but this is unclear.Pliny states that it was carved from a single block of marble; by Agesander, Polydorus, and Athenodorus of Rhodes. But, it is pretty clear that the sculpture is not made from one single piece of marble. Does this sully Pliny’s account? Was there another version which he was referring to? History is hearsay. We can’t be sure. One of the pieces defining characteristics, what makes it such a marvel, is how the physique is anatomically perfect. This speaks of a highly developed cultu re, with an intricate understanding of anatomy and physiology. But, also of a culture that privileges physical strength and beauty.The Greeks of the time were either artists or warriors, or often both, so strength and beauty were central in their world. Laocoon and His Sons is a much more naturalistic piece than earlier Greek works; in which the figures were often idolized; lacking luster, life, emotion, humanity. Cleobis and Biton, a set of sculptures from the Archaic Period, exemplify this quite well; posing, rigid, golem like figures; lacking the humanity they are supposed to represent. The Hellenistic baroque style of Laocoon and His Sons gives us a much more true-to-life representation in comparison to earlier works.This work has inspired artists and regular humans alike down through the centuries, one of whom it is particularly well known to have influenced greatly was Michelangelo; as can be seen in some of his pieces; e. g: The rebellious Slave. I summation, I think this pie ce is truly of note to art historians. Above, I have highlighted some reasons I think this is the case. Bibliography: Virgil, (reprint) 2003. The Aeneid. London: Penguin Classics. Pollitt, J. J. 2006. Art in the Hellenistic Age. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 5 Pliny, Natural History XXXVI. iv. 37